ARTICLES
Cross Border Human Trafficking in Nepal
CROSS BORDER HUMAN TRAFFICKING IN NEPAL: SOME CONSIDERABLE ISSUES[1]
Dr. Ram Krishna Timalsena
I. INTRODUCTION
Trafficking is one of the serious problems of the day inNepal. It is a means of exploitation of women and children by forcing them into the sex industry, domestic and factory labor, organ transplantation and illegal adoption. The biggest number of trafficking exists in the form of cross-border trafficking in young women and children fromNepaltoIndia,Bangladesh,Hong Kongand to the gulf countries. In this respectNepalis not a recipient country but a supplier where from trafficking originates. Another trend of trafficking is the increase in internal trafficking from rural to urban areas for prostitution. A number of factors like poverty, lack of education, social discrimination and exclusion, non-functional family structures, open border, archaic laws and ineffective law enforcement and policy implementation mechanisms, have been identified as the main causes for the increasing of trafficking in human being inNepal.
Before initiating the discussion it is useful to know the facts about human trafficking in general. In the world, there are about 700,000 to 2 million people mainly women and children who are being trafficked every year. About 10 million trafficked people, predominantly women and children, are living in subhuman conditions. As reported, human trafficking is the third largest illegal trade in the world that makes annual profit up to $5 billion to $7 billion after drugs smuggling and gun running. The present ratio of trafficking in children is already 10 times higher than the trans-Atlantic slave trade at its pinnacle. It is the fastest growing form of forced labour. [2]
As reported by the Times News Network, [3] every year, 5,000 to 7,000 women and children ofNepal are trafficked intoIndia for forced prostitution. 20% (i.e. 40,000) of trafficked Nepali women and children for sex trade inIndia are girls below 16 years of age. Except for sex trade, thousands of Nepali children are trafficked intoIndia to work in carpet factories in Bhadoi (Mirjapur), circus (e.g. Firojabad), potato farms, road construction in Shimla, forced beggary (e.g.. Banaras), domestic child labour inDelhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, etc. The earlier belief that only girls from specific geographical area and community are being trafficked has been proved false. Rather, this crime has expanded to every area and community including boys and men.
In view of the rising scale of the problem of cross border trafficking and the concern for protecting and promoting basic human rights of common Nepali citizens the paper sheds light on some considerable issues of human trafficking inNepal.
II. DEFINITION
There is no universally agreed definition of trafficking. It ranges from voluntary, facilitated migration to the exploitation of prostitution, to the movement of persons through threat or use of force, coercion, violence, etc. for certain exploitative purposes.
The concept of trafficking has been ever changing with the passage of time. It is an ever changing concept. The parameters of human trafficking are also repeatedly shifting. With the change in economic, social and political conditions, the constituent elements of trafficking are also changing. Not only the purposes of human trafficking change but the ways are also changing. However, the fundamental element of human trafficking is the same. The very core element of trafficking is the recognition that trafficking is never consensual. It is the non-consensual nature of trafficking that distinguishes it from other forms of migration. The lack of informed consent must not be confused with the illegality of certain forms of migration. While all trafficking is, or should be illegal, all illegal migration is not trafficking. Therefore, the concepts of trafficking and illegal migration should be understood separately. At the heart of this distinction is the issue of consent.
Records and research show that trafficking takes place for a number of exploitative purposes to which trafficking victims have not consented. It includes inter alia, forced and/or bonded labour, sex trade, forced marriage and other slavery-like practices. In view of this one may suggest a liberal definition of trafficking that encompasses the common elements of the trafficking process. The common elements are the brokering, accompanied by the exploitative or servile conditions of the work or relationship in which the trafficked person ends up. Moreover, the definition of trafficking must distinguish trafficking as a separate violation from its constituent parts.
The UN Special Rapporteur uses the following definition of trafficking:
Trafficking in persons means the recruitment, transportation, purchase, sale, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons:
(i) By threat or use of violence, abduction, force, fraud, deception or coercion (including the abuse of authority), or debt bondage
(ii) Placing or holding such person, whether for pay or not, in forced labor or slavery-like practices, in a community other than the one in which such person lived at the time of the original act described in (i).
Subsection (1) of the definition covers all persons involved in the trafficking chain: those at the beginning of the chains, who provides or sells the trafficked person, and those at the end of the chains, who receive or purchase the trafficked person, hold the trafficked person in forced labor and profit from that labor. Criminalizing the activities of all parties involved throughout the process of trafficking would facilitate efforts to both prevent trafficking and punish traffickers.
Current definition of trafficking focuses on forced labor or slavery-like practices, rather than narrowly focusing on prostitution or sexual exploitation. Experience shows that trafficking is undertaken for several purposes, including but not limited to prostitution or other sex work, domestic, manual or industrial labor, and marriage, adoptive or other intimate relationships. The common elements found in all of the trafficking patterns are:
III. RELEVANT ISSUES
- Whether we should criminalize or decriminalize or regularize prostitution and trafficking?
There may be different laws that touch upon the issue of trafficking. It is not only the issue of human rights but also the issue of criminal law and social justice. Likewise, labor laws, laws relating to immigration and public health etc. are equally pertinent in this issue. Prostitution can be decriminalized within the legal framework with some regulation if it is voluntary and if there is no element of exploitation. Trafficking is the matter of criminal law. It is wider than the prostitution. However, a wise policy on the scope of criminalization, decriminalization and regulation must be developed in view of right-based approach. After being clear in the approach we have to update or laws in tune with changing need.
- Whether trafficking is unilateral or bilateral or multilateral issue?
Trafficking is connected with migration and it involves a number of issues. It should not be treated as a national problem alone. Rather, it is an international problem. This problem must be solved through various means. National efforts as well as regional and global collaboration are required to fight against this problem. Therefore, suitable strategies should be developed in this regard. Bilateral arrangements and multilateral agreements may require to cope with this problem.
IV. PROSTITUTION INSIDENEPAL
Nepalhas certain communities whose traditional culture perpetuates prostitution. These are the Badis and Deukis of westernNepal. In Dang, Salyan, Rukum, Pyuthan, Banke,Kailali Bardiya, Surkhet and Dailekh districts the Badi community women earn their livelihood as singing and dancing girls for the local rich who reward them. With the change of social system their profession is in risk so they took up prostitution as the means of livelihood. The girl children from the Badi mothers usually go to the same line of work. There are other similar traditions like Jhuma, Kumari and Gandharva in different parts of the country contributing to the tradition of prostitution. Baitadi and Dadeldhura districts have a tradition of Deukis (the divine girls). In this tradition, virgin girls were presented to the god in certain temples in exchange of blessings of property, wealth and social status. Poor family sold their girls to the rich for an offering. These girls are not allowed to marry. These girls under compulsion turn to the prostitutes.
Besides culture and traditions socio economic factors of the country contribute for trafficking and prostitution. The increasing number of children pushed into prostitution due to poverty, ignorance, child marriage, conflict situation which is a matter of great concern.
There are various reasons of this problem. But the main reason for this problem is thatNepalis an agrarian nation that lacks sufficient economic base, infrastructure and developed human resources. About 90% of its 23 million people rely on subsistence agriculture. Adult literacy is as low as 23 percent for females and 57 percent for males.
Two third of sex workers in Nepalstate that they entered sex work by choice. While 38%cited influence by female friends, 9% by other family members 6% by pimps 4% by brothel owners and 4% by mothers.[4] However, the distinction between entry into sex work via trafficking and coercion versus voluntary entry is often not clear. The same set of social familial and economic circumstances that lead women to a decision to enter sex work increase their likelihood of being trafficked. Even when women enter sex work by choice that may not know beforehand exactly what this works entails and may be unprepared for its exploitative nature.
In addition, there is a regular call girl racket where educated girls offer themselves to make some quick money. The hotel industry is alleged for supplying call girls to satisfy their customers sexually.
V. No Authentic Statistics on Trafficking
It is said that Nepali women and girls are internationally involved in the sex trade. Trafficking in women and girls from Nepalare mostly taken to Indiato enter into prostitution. Apart from India, Nepali women and children are being sold to countries of the Gulf including Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, under the guise of employment. It is said that about 150 Nepali girls were taken to Bangladesh. Hong Kongis the second biggest market of Nepali women & children for flesh trade.
There are no authentic data regarding the size and nature of cross border human trafficking in Nepal.[5] Of course, we find some references regarding the extent of prostitution that too is based on either on secondary data or on unreliable research. A report estimates that only in Bombay, according to the calculations of an organization of Nepali brothel staff, there are about 20,000 Nepali in the city's flesh trade -- other agencies estimate that the actual number is closer to 50,000. Most of these women and girls work for Nepali gharwalis and almost all are illiterate. Seventy percent are thought to belong to ethnic minority groups such as the Tamang, Gurung, Magar, and Sherpa.[6] Indian government's Human Resource Development Ministry released a report in May 1994, based on a survey conducted in 1991-1992 in six Indian cities. The study found 70,000-100,000 sex workers, of whom about a half were from Nepal.[7] Some studies suggest about 100000 commercial sex workers in various Indian cities are from Nepal. Dr. I.S. Gilada, General Secretary of the Indian Health Organization (IHO), estimated on the basis of various studies conducted between 1985 and 1994 that there were between 70,000 and 100,000 prostitutes in Bombay, 100,000 in Calcutta, 40,000 in Delhi, 40,000 in Pune and 13,000 in Nagpur. Based on his statistics, Nepali social workers estimate the number of Nepali girls and women now working in Indian brothels are about 200,000 and it is believed that between 5,000 and 7,000 new Nepali end up in Indian brothels every year. [8] IIDS and UNIFEM study also concludes that reliable research is required to find the real extent of trafficking. As it cites various sources and reports that at least 5000 women and girls have been trafficked to India annually and maximum 200000 women and girls are in various Indian brothels.[9]
WithinNepal, an estimated 25,000 sex laborers are reported of which 5000 are child sex laborers in fast growing urban and semi urban centers, 1000 alone inKathmanduvalley. More than 20% of the women in commercial sex market are under the age of 16 (UNICEF 1997).
Nepal Police in 2059 BS (2002) rescued altogether 217 women and girls from various Indo-Nepalborder points which were as follows: [10]
Likewise, Maiti Nepalhas intercepted and rescued 395 and 359 persons in the years 2000 and 2001 respectively.[11] Moreover, the Census of 2001 reveals that altogether 82,712 women were absentees. Out of them 40.6% were absent without known reasons. Among the absentees how many were trafficked to different countries? No research has been conducted on this issue so far.
COURT CASES
An analysis of the cases related to human trafficking that were registered before the various tiers of the courts reveals some different picture regarding the extent of the problem. In 2000/2001 there were altogether 103 cases in the Supreme Court and 238 cases in various Appellate Courts of the country. Likewise, 158 cases were in the various District Courts. Similarly, in the year 2001/2002, there were 116, 222 and 103 cases in the Supreme Court, Appellate Courts and District Courts respectively.[12] From this one may infer that about 400 court cases are registered in various courts annually. Among those cases more than a half were carried over as backlogs of the last year. These statistics reveal that either human trafficking cases are under reported or the extent of the problem is not that large as it is reported by various reports. Likewise, if we analyze rescued cases it shows limited numbers of women have been rescued than that of estimated number. If the number is reliable as shown by different studies, at least 5000 girls and women ofNepal have been trafficked outsideNepal every year. It compels us to rethink about the role of state and civil society. It can be comparable with the present problem of internal conflict situation ofNepal. If the estimation holds true it would be more problematic than the Maoist insurgency prevailing in the country in terms of human rights violation. It is, therefore high time to find out real picture of such a grave problem. Whether there is misrepresentation in data creation or under reporting of the offence? A methodical research study is required to diagnose the extent the problem.
V. Efforts Made in National Level
Of late, there have been several efforts in controlling and combating the problem of human trafficking in Nepal. Reform in law and policies is one of the areas of efforts. The Constitution of the Kingdomof Nepalunder its part III guarantees various rights of the citizens that inter alia includes right against exploitation. It also prohibits trafficking in human beings and forced labor in any form.Nepal has adopted a national policy to combat against human trafficking, to raise socio-economic status of the victim of trafficking. The policy also focuses on prevention of crime and protection and rehabilitation of the victims of trafficking. The human trafficking Control Act 1986 prescribes severe sentence for the offence of trafficking.Nepal, as a party to at least 18 international instruments, has legal obligations to control the offence of trafficking. The Convention on the Suppression of trafficking and the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others, 1949, the Convention on the Elimination of all Form of Discrimination against Women, 1979 and the Convention of Rights of Child, 1990 etc are the major instruments among others where Nepal has been a party.Nepal has also supported regional instruments called the SAARC Convention on Regional Arrangements on Child Welfare inSouth Asia and Regional Convention on Combating the Crime of trafficking in Women and Children for Prostitution on regional level.
As it is understood, trafficking as a cross-border offence cannot be dealt with successfully at the national level alone. Rather, it should be addressed internationally. It is high time that some special measures need to be initiated in the bilateral or multilateral level.
VI. Major Legal Instruments
· The Foreign Employment Act, 1985
Although the Constitution of Nepal is very progressive in guaranteeing the basic human rights of the people, the laws ofNepalrelating to trafficking and its control mechanism are not in line with the Constitution. Nepali laws are not sufficient to cope with this problem. The Human Trafficking (control) Act, 1986 applies moralist and crime control approach. It does not take into account of human rights perspective. As of today, the Act does not prescribe punishment for the purchaser of women and girls for the purpose of prostitution. The statute and legal provisions containing in the National Code are not sufficient to control the problems of human trafficking inNepal. The Act is limited to prostitution and sex trade. It does not cover all aspects of human trafficking. As we know human trafficking is a broader concept than the concept of prostitution, Nepali laws do focus only on prostitution that too in a narrower sense. In view of this, a bill regarding human trafficking control was drafted. It could not come into force because of dissolution of Parliament before its term.
VIII.Open Border
Nepalhas open border with India. There may be some benefits of it. Similarly it may have some adverse impacts as well. It is not a single state's matter of concern but a bilateral matter of the both countries. Border towns on both sides are busy markets, catering to residents from the both countries. Those markets are fertile grounds for smuggling and prostitution, serving as a nexus for brokers and agents who take advantage of the crowds of anonymous travelers, the guest lodges, and the easy access to transportation. As reported by one of the leading Dailies of India, the Hindu,[13] fencing the border is one of the measures to check trafficking in women. It reports that the National Commission for Women (NCW) has recommended complete fencing of the India Bangladesh border to check the increasing human trafficking. NCW chairperson Poornima Advani said that security measures should be taken so that women along the border are safe and the problem of infiltration is also tackled. India may need 34 more battalions of Border Security Force to man the 2200 K.M border between India and Bangladesh since 50 percent of the border was fenced.[14] Take the same example, 15 brigade of BSF may require in Indo-Nepal border which would be more costly in terms of budgetary requirement. Ms Advani also said that the state government recognized the fact that the trafficking across the national border with Nepal and Bangladesh as well as within the country was a matter of grave concern and necessitated a dialogue with the neighboring countries to discuss the issue.[15]Whatever may be the measure open border should be regulated so that criminals would not be able to make it fertile ground for criminal activities. Deploying BSF would not be practicable solution for this problem. Other possible ways need to be identified.
A 1950 treaty with Nepalprovided for free passage and trade across the Nepal/India border. Article 7 of the treaty reads:
"The Government of India and Nepalagree to grant, on a reciprocal basis, to the nationals of one country in the territories of the other the same privileges in the matters of residence, ownership of property, participation in trade and commerce, movement and other privileges of a similar nature."
Subsequent governments of Nepalexpressed unhappiness with the treaty quite a few times, but although either country could terminate the treaty with a year's notice, Indiahas not wished to lose the privileges it enjoys and Nepalcannot afford the cost of a deteriorating in its trade relationship with India. On February 9, 1995, India announced that it was ready to hold talks with Nepal's new government on amending the forty-five-year-old treaty. [16]
One thousand Kilo Meter long unregulated open border betweenIndiaandNepalmay have caused difficulty in containing cross border trafficking. Offenders often change their exit point to avoid arrest. It causes difficulty to law enforcement officials. As an offence having cross border impacts some border based strategies need to be developed and implemented in order to contain this problem. Existing border based prevention mechanisms should be reassessed. Likewise, information management system regarding cross border movement needs to be developed. Strong documentation system of to and from the country should be established. While developing strategies we need to think about right to movement and human dignity aspects as well. The police, NGOs and other organizations of the both countries working for the prevention of cross border trafficking should develop a system of healthy collaboration and coordination including a culture of information sharing. AsNepalandIndiaare friendly countries they will be able to trace out the root causes of the problem and an intelligent solution thereof.
Sometimes, it is very difficult to findout whether it is migration or trafficking. It is obvious that migration is human right whereas trafficking is the serious crime under criminal law. Therefore, a clear-cut policy in this regard must be devised and implemented.
Even inIndia the law is narrower than it requires. Suppression of Immoral Trafficking against Women (SITA), a penal law, was passed in 1956 and enforced in 1958. It was the result ofIndia's signing the Trafficking Convention. SITA did not seek the "abolition of prostitutes and prostitution as such and to make it per se a criminal offense or punish a person because one prostitutes oneself. Its stated goal was "to inhibit or abolish commercialized vice, namely the traffic in persons for the purpose of prostitution as an organized means of living." Prostitution was defined as the act of a female who offers her body for promiscuous sexual intercourse for hire. Accordingly, the engagement by a woman in individual, voluntary, and independent prostitution is not an offense under the Act.
The SITA also permits penalization of a woman found to be engaged in prostitution under certain conditions. For example, Section 7(i) penalizes a woman found engaged in prostitution in or near a public place. Section 8(b) did the same for a woman found seducing or soliciting for purposes of prostitution. The law also permits a magistrate to order the removal of a person engaged in prostitution from any place, and to punish the person upon refusal. Offenses under SITA are bailable, but a woman arrested from the street by the police usually did not have either the money or the influence to keep herself out of custody or free from fines.
Indeed, customers sometimes were called as witnesses against women accused of prostitution. Police could take into custody customers only by applying the indecent behavior and obscenity sections available under local laws, or the Indian Penal Code. For example, Section 110B of the Bombay Police Act penalizes indecent behavior and allows for the arrest of pimps and prostitutes.
Under the Immoral Traffic in Persons Prevention Act 1986 ( ITPPA) a brothel has been redefined broadly as any place where sexual exploitation or abuse occurred. Accordingly, under Section 3 of ITPPA, the keepers of any place where sexual abuse takes place could be prosecuted. In the case of trafficked women, this would now cover the houses and room where the newly trafficked girls and women were physically and psychologically broken, in the process called "training." ITPPA also attempts to remove the loopholes of lack of knowledge that SITA afforded brothel keepers and owners by placing the burden of proof on the landowner conditionally. However, the primary condition under which ITPPA could presume that a landlord had knowledge of the illegalities on his building was extremely unlikely to be met and therefore effectively useless.
Many of the amendments ITPPA made to the 1956 law endeavored to widen the act to include both men and women, and all parties involved in prostitution. But in some cases the amendments actually served to further discriminate against women in prostitution. For example, according to ITPPA, whoever attempts to solicit "by words, gestures, willful exposure of her person ...for the purpose of prostitution," shall be subject to up to one year imprisonment (six months for a first offense) and a fine of up to Rs. 500. But the 1986 amendment to the ITPPA inserts that if the offense is committed by a man, the mandatory sentence ranges from only seven days to three months.
Girls and women are treated differently under SITA, although their exploiters did not. SITA had defined adulthood as twenty-one years. Accordingly, an adult woman prosecuted for soliciting or prostituting in a public place would be tried in court and, if convicted, sent to a protective home or institution, whereas a girl was immediately referred for rehabilitation. However, the punishments for exploiters of women and girls were the same. Now, ITPPA made distinctions between "major," "minor," and "child." The Act defined as a "child" anyone who is under sixteen years of age. Persons between sixteen and eighteen years are considered "minors and anyone eighteen years or older is considered as an adult or "major." Contrary to the protections of international law, for adults, ITPPA reverses the burden of proof. While children and minors arrested under the act are presumed innocent, those over eighteen are required to prove their innocence.
In addition to this, Sections 372 and 373 of the Indian Penal Code state that anyone who buys, sells or obtains possession of any person under the age of eighteen for the purpose of prostitution, illicit intercourse, unlawful or immoral purposes, or knowing that such use at any age is likely, is subject to up to ten years of imprisonment. The IPC also contains prohibitions against indecent assaults on women under its Section 354, and kidnapping, abduction, and wrongful confinement under Sections 359-368. It mandates imprisonment of up to ten years for the procurement or import of minors for the purposes of illicit intercourse, kidnapping and abduction leading to serious hurt, slavery or subjection to "unnatural lust" as per Section 367.
X. Approaches to Trafficking
· Crime Control Approach: This approach does not consider other things except the way to control the crime strictly.
· Moralist Approach: This approach perceives prostitution as an immoral act.
· Illegal Migration Approach: This approach deals trafficking issue as the byproduct of migration.
· Labor Law Approach: this approach focuses the problem in light of national and international labor law issue.
· Due process or Human Rights Approach: Under this approach every individual is entitled to use his liberty without intervention of state and other people. It takes into account of the rights guaranteed by the constitution and law.
If we analyze corresponding Nepali and Indian laws that govern trafficking issues the common characteristics are that these laws are based on moralistic and crime control models. Moreover, these laws adopt paternalistic approach while dealing the issue of trafficking and prostitution.
XI. What we need to do?
· Legal Reform
· Research on the extent and scope of trafficking
· Awareness and Education
· Rehabilitation
· Border Measures
· National Priority
· Adherence to international obligations to suppress trafficking,
· Consolidation of institutional mechanisms,
· NGO and INGO initiatives and rescue and rehabilitation of trafficked persons
XII. Principles and Guidelines on Human rights and Human Trafficking
United Nations has recommended some Guidelines on Human rights and human trafficking in 2002 AD. Those guidelines cover the following areas:[18]
1. Promotion and protection of human rights
2. Identification of trafficked persons and traffickers
3. Research, analysis, evaluation and dissemination
4. Ensuring an adequate legal framework
5. Ensuring adequate law enforcement response
6. Protection and support for trafficked persons
7. Preventing trafficking
8. Special measures for the protection and support of child victims of trafficking
9. Access to remedies
10. Obligation of peacekeepers civilian police and humanitarian and diplomatic personnel
11. Cooperation and coordination between states and regions
XIII. National Policies:
The Ninth plan focuses on the programs regarding identification of crimes, necessary punishment, remedy and rehabilitation system and raising social consciousness.Morever, HMG/Nepalhas also adopted a national policy to prevent, protect and rehabilitate the trafficked victims. The National policy focuses on the following areas:
· Amount collected from fines shall be utilized to rehabilitate the victim of trafficking.
· Necessary steps shall be taken to control the disease like HIV/ AIDS, as they are connected with trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation.
· District level coordination committees shall be formed to function as the coordinating communication centers.
· In collaboration with NGOs rehabilitation program for the rescued girls and women will be organized.
· HMG will initiate programs for co-operation with the bilateral and multilateral donors to combat the problem of human trafficking.
· Formal and vocational education and employment-oriented programs will be conducted in order to control human trafficking.
· Strict and effective law will be enacted.
· Poverty will be controlled and Employment opportunities to women will be expanded
XIV. National Plan of Action
Nepal Government approved a National Plan of Action against trafficking in women and children for commercial sexual exploitation on 29 July 1999. The plan of action prescribes national strategy for combating trafficking and its various causes. The plan of action has adopted multi-pronged and multi-sectoral implementation of programs. It contains a various programs of short-term, medium-term and long-term nature. The areas of conducting program are as follows:
XV. Institutional Setup
XVI. Trafficking in Women: Existing Check Post of Women Group[19]
· Thankot
· Kakadvitta, Jhapa
· Rani, Biratnagar
· Bhittamod, Mahottari
· Jamuna, Bake
· Inaruwa, Sunsari
· Belahiya, Rupandehi
· Gadda, Kanchanpur
XVII. Concluding Remarks
Human trafficking is one of the serious problems comparable with insurgency problem ofNepal. It has long-term adverse impact on National development. It is not confined with human rights issue; rather it has been associated with numerous other issues. Although there have been many efforts in national as well as international level the problem remains an unsolved problem. It has undermined our civilization and humanity. Containing the problem requires a number of strategies and measures including border measures and bilateral and multilateral arrangements. Above all, we must be able to find out its real extent and nature. Hence, a thorough research is recommended.
[1] This paper does not cover every aspect of trafficking in Nepal.It is prepared for the purpose of kicking off the discussion on the subject. Information used in this paper is gathered from various sources. I acknowledge the help of them whose study and research have been used in this paper.
[4] Presented by UNICEF at the consultative workshop for the development of National plan of Action against Trafficking in children and their commercial sexual exploitation 1998.
[7] Prostitution in Metropolitan Cities of India, Central Social Welfare Board, Submitted to the Human Resource Development Ministry in August 1993, released May 1994, cited in The Pioneer (Delhi, India), June 15, 1994; The Statesman (Delhi, India), June 8, 1994; Sunday Observer (Delhi, India), October 3, 1993).
[9] See in detailed in "Status and Dimensions of trafficking within Nepali Context", IIDS and UNIFEM 14-15 (March 2004)
[16] Source: RAPE FOR PROFIT: Trafficking of Nepali Girls and Women to India's Brothels October 2000 Vol. 12, No. 5 (A) Human Rights Watch/Asia.
[18] See Recommended Principles and Guidelines on Human rights and Human Trafficking, United Nations, New York and Geneva, 2002
